Meaning in Relapse Prevention Planning

When working on relapse prevention plans with clients, I have the propensity to feel like the clients service is not truly being fulfilled, but rather a fulfillment of an addiction treatment business model. I understand that gaining awareness in triggers, warning signs, coping skills have a valuable role in recovery, but how often does a person in recovery look at their relapse prevention plan. Research has suggested that relapse prevention strategies fail because they do not account for the innate urge for meaning. Relapse prevention planning is missing something, it is missing the focus on why a client should do all the things they write in a relapse prevention plan. How can a client find meaning when it comes to relapse prevention? It has been suggested that addicts use to find "transcendence and meaning", with that being said, what can be done differently to assist in the journey of transcendence and meaning?

Factors Influencing Adolescent Development

Most Significant Factor Influencing Adolescent Development

Adolescent development and social interactions has a very influential impact on how an adolescent creates a defining path and perspective on life’s terms, through trial and error processes. Social interactions can have several complexities such as social competence , which has been described by Broderick & Blewitt as, “a criterion for peer group acceptance, is a broad construct that is not restricted to one set of prescribed behaviors” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 266). Social competence if full of varying responses and values, such as empathy, valuing of relationships, and cognitive processes (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 266). Cognitive processes is difficult to assess because each adolescent has a different perspective and moral judgments. Social skills reflect social competence at every level, which in return can change the path of social exchange between children and peer groups. Social skills can be developed by “modeling, coaching, and reinforcement processes” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 266). Broderick & Blewitt suggest, “Peer group serves many important functions for children and adolescents by providing opportunities for practice in communication, conflict resolution, joint goal setting, cooperative learning, and shared decision making” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 267).

Why I Believe this is the Most Significant Factor

Social influence such as social competence and social skills can be built within the family environment as a child and potentially developed in adolescence through application. Social interaction is a journey that can help define a person, either positive or negative in nature. Adolescence embarks on a journey of more responsibility and the interactions of peer groups can assist with the formation of identity outside the family environment. Sociometry has been used as a way to assess social competence by viewing group processes as a mixture of positive forces, negative forces, and indifferences (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 268). Sociometric categories have “included five subgroups: popular, average, neglected, rejected, and controversial” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 268). Adolescence promotes the adaption of self-identity and the groups based off peer nominations, which in a sense place labels from the positive and negative nominations. Popular children exhibit traits of being “prosocial, cooperative, intelligent, and capable of working well with others” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 269). Research suggests that rejected children show “aggression was the primary attribute” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 269) and is due to being rejected by peers. Rejected also show the opposite traits and characteristics of popular children by having “lower levels of perspective taking, self-control, and positive social interaction skills” (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010, p. 270). Erikson (1950) suggests the “fundamental developmental task that individuals face during adolescence is defining their identity” (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2008, p. 983).  Identity statuses by ethnicity has shown that adolescents with strong ethnic identity exhibit high self-esteem but it is unclear “whether belonging to ethnic minority groups results in differing identity status membership” (Crocetti et al., 2008, p. 985).

Impact the Decisions of Adolescents

When children try to identify and be accepted into social networks and peer groups the core traits and attribute: physical, cognitive, and emotional can play a large role. Children may be accepted and labeled into the popular group and the children in the rejected group will try to do what they can to fit into that group or adapt to a group that will accept them. The three-factor Model of Identity has interesting insight into the commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment in the identity processes. The journey of adolescents and identity have two distinguished types of exploration such as the in-depth exploration and reconsideration of commitment, where this leads to an active exploration of current commitments and the reflection on their choices, which leads to the search of additional information about these choices (Klimstra, Hale, Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2010, p. 152).

How a Counselor Might Apply this Knowledge

When looking into the identity processes of a client it would be very important to understand the environment and relation to social influence of the client. To gain insight into the client’s worldview would be to understand where they fit into the peer groups during childhood and adolescence. This information could help assist the counselor to form a better case conceptualization and treatment planning with the client. The understanding of when the client’s areas of concerns developed would also help the counselor pick a theoretical orientation to be used to assist the client.

References

Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2010). The Life Span: Human Development for Helping Professionals (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., Luyckx, K., & Meeus, W. (2008). Identity Formation in Early and Middle Adolescents From Various Ethnic Groups: From Three Dimensions to Five Statuses. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 37(), 983-996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9222-2

Klimstra, T. A., Hale, W. W., Raaijmakers, Q. A., Branje, S. J., & Meeus, W. H. (2010). Identity Formation in Adolescence: Change or Stability? Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 39(), 150-162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9401-4

Positive psychology

Using certain aspects of positive psychology has increased my awareness in the field of substance abuse. Being able to assist a person in understanding signature strengths and adapting those strengths in treatment and recovery. The number one response I get when I ask "What are your top five strengths" are generally skills. The lack of awareness when it comes to strengths is surprisingly high. I read a book that stated "mend, move, and maintain" and that is huge because we do have to mend our past and move away from denial and maintain our future.

Operant Conditioning Shampoo with a little touch of Superstitions

Assignment 2: LASA 1—Operant Conditioning and Superstitions

John Conn

Argosy

Assignment 2: LASA 1—Operant Conditioning and Superstitions

E.L. Thorndike is considered the first researcher to study “nonreflexive behaviors” of animals and the behaviors can be modified as the result of experience (Mazur, 2006, p. 119). The theory of behavior and cognition dates back to 1596 with Descartes, where he thought that humans and non-human animals had similar functions based on mechanical or machine principles (Armstrong & Botzler, 1993, p. 281). Darwin initiated animal research with the suggestion that the anatomy of humans and animals were similar as well as emotions and cognitions (Wallace, 2012). Thorndike’s theory consists of the law of effect, law of readiness, and law of exercise, which the classic example of a cat learning to escape from a “puzzle box” by pressing a lever inside the box (Mazur, 2006, p. 119).

Thorndike is credited for the first investigations of the principle of reinforcement but it was B.F. Skinner who increased the interest and used the terms operant conditioning (Mazur, 2006, p. 131). Skinner researched behavior that “reflected that behavior is strengthened through reinforcement” (Mazur, 2006, p. 131).

Superstitious behavior was based from the stop-action principle and that behaviors may be strengthened by accident. Skinner conducted the superstition experiment that “made a strong case for the power of accidental reinforcement” (Mazur, 2006, p. 123). Skinner, Guthrie, and Horton noticed that each cat or pigeon had distinctive styles of moving the pole and reinforcement was delivered and strengthened the behavior (Mazur, 2006).  Superstitions and sports go hand in hand by witnessing a baseball player use the same glove or having a routine before stepping into the batter’s box. A player that touches each corner of the home plate with his bat before getting ready to hit the ball may have had luck at one point that triggered the repetitive behavior of the ritual. Superstitions frequently happen when the individual actually has no control over the events taking place (Mazur, 2006, p. 123). The baseball player has a form of control when it comes to hitting the baseball but the sequences performed that may create good luck may make a person feel like they have more control or greater luck of chance to hit a homerun or game winning single. Superstitious behavior developed from an accidental association between action and consequences (Mazur, 2006) so the continued behavior will happen as long as the desired outcome is maintained. A baseball player will continue to have a routine or some item that brings luck if the player is happy with the desired outcome. Shaping is a behavior modification tool that will help guide a baseball player to think differently about the superstitions. The use of scheduled reinforcements will set times when the reinforce will or will not be used. Having the player that uses a routine or wears a trinket not use these prior to batting and see what the outcome may be. Superstitious behavior should stop after the grouping of success without this behavior or item.

This author interviewed his fiancé and the superstition was walking under ladders. The reason behind this superstition was started from an accident where she had something dropped on her head by a family member that was getting some item off a shelf in the house they lived. The connection between getting hurt and someone on the ladder made her weary of walking around or under ladders.

References

Armstrong, S. J., & Botzler, R. G. (1993). In Environmental Ethics: Divergence and Convergence [Adobe PDF]. Retrieved from http://dhaydock.org/Philosophy/Unit%202%20-%20Animal%20and%20Machine%20Minds/Descartes%20Animals%20as%20Machines.pdf

Mazur, J. E. (2006). Learning and Behavior (6th ed.) [VitalSource Bookshelf]. Retrieved from http://digitalbookshelf.argosy.edu/#/books/0558220231/pages/48393079

Wallace, A. R. (2012). Darwin’s “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals”. Retrieved from http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S220.htm

Parental Involvement and Children’s Education

Parental Involvement and Children’s Education

John Conn

Argosy University

Author Note

This research was carried out as partial fulfillment towards experimental methods course by John W Conn.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to John Conn, Department of Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix 2233 West Dunlap Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85021 Email:  Email: JohnWConn22@msn.com

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to define parental involvement in academic success. Previous research has suggested that parental involvement has increased a child’s academic success. This research focused on the success of parental involvement and surveyed the lower 25^th percentile of students. The hypothesis suggested that parental involvement of ten hours of week with their children will increase their academic success.

Keywords: Parental, involvement, education, academic, success, community

Parental Involvement and Children’s Education

Education plays a very important role in a person’s life and development. Statistics have suggested that higher education leads to increase in the average median of salary of individuals (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). In October 2008, statistical data revealed that approximately 3.0 million, 16-24 year olds had not enrolled in high school and had not earned a diploma. The statistics for dropout rates appears alarming but changes have been made to the educational system that dropout rate trend downward since 1972 from 14.6 percent to 8.0 percent in 2008. The importance of education is tremendous and in an idea world, the dropout rate should be the lowest possible for future generations to be successful. Parent’s involvement in education is a resource that starts with birth from simple tasks of walking and talking and grows into complicated algorithms and educational needs as children grow.

The purpose of the paper is to define if parental involvement does help increase their children’s academic success and to focus on the population that grades fall into the lower 25^th percentile. The evidence in this author’s research is consistent and positive: families have a major influence on their children’s achievement in school and throughout life. Many studies found that parental involvement in their children’s education were more likely to earn higher grades, attend school regularly, better social skills, and graduate school: no matter the income or background   (Hernderson & Mapp, 2002). Previous research supports parental involvement; little documentation exists and defines effective parental involvement (Baker & Soden, 1997). The first investigation examines what defines parental involvement for parents and examines the link between involvement and the student achievement (Baker & Soden, 1997). The investigation covered 200 studies that had placed into two categories: non-empirical and empirical (Baker & Soden, 1997). The reviewers identify several issues in the quality about engaging parents in their children’s education. Findings showed the lack of true experimental design and defining parental involvement with consistency. Recommendations from the first investigation’s authors on future research suggests to use experimental procedures, clarify the definition of parent involvement, measure parent behavior objectively, and examine relationship among parent involvement, student achievement, and gender (Baker & Soden, 1997).

The second investigation uses a long-term national database, National Educational Longitudinal study to examine effects of Epstein’s six types of parental involvement (Catsambis, 1998). The author acknowledges that parental involvement in education can take on many forms, and some create more of an impact than others do. The use of Epstein’s six types of parent involvement is broken down in categories starting with parent obligation, communications, supporting school, learning activities, decision making, and community (Catsambis, 1998). This investigation uses the data from NELS:88 and tracked the behavior of 13,580 parents whose children remained in school through the 12^th grade (Catsambis, 1998). This study measures each of Epstein’s involvement type and the impact on achievements, were standardized test scores measured student achievement, and total credits in math, English, and science (Catsambis, 1998). This investigation confirmed the impact of parental involvement showing the greatest impact in the eighth grade. The second investigation concludes that parental involvement does influence education and is with expectations and encouragement provides the most important type of family practice (Catsambis, 1998).

The third investigation incorporates the general understanding that families, school, and communities have a common ground when related to children’s learning and development (Epstein & Sanders, 2000). This review, focused on social capital to increase well-designed partnerships that enable families, students, and community to interact in productive ways (Epstein & Sanders, 2000). General findings during this investigation showed that teachers, parents, and students have little understanding in children and schools (Epstein & Sanders, 2000). Families that had better education had more involvement in schools, but families with lower education an incomes became just as involved when schools engaged them and had effective programs (Epstein & Sanders, 2000).

The fourth investigation covered a three year period that included 1205 urban elementary school children from a diverse ethnically city (Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999). The investigation covered kindergarten through third grade and researchers randomly selected students from 341 classrooms in 27 schools. Researchers looked at school-district data on six different categories such as gender, grade level, family income & education, and ethnicity (Izzo et al., 1999). During each year of the research, teachers rated the parents’ involvement using four different measures. Teachers rated the frequency of parent-teacher contacts, quality of interactions, parent educational activities at home (Izzo et al., 1999). Findings from this investigation showed a decline in parent involvement over the three years with a moderately high involvement the first year. Engaging in activities at home did not decline over the three years during the investigation (Izzo et al., 1999).

The fifth investigation reported on surveys of 423 parents, using the dependent variables of parent attitudes about the high school, parent involvement at home, and parent involvement at school (Sanders, Epstein, & Connors-Tadros, 1999). Scales that measured parent reports of school activities in parenting, communication, learning at home, and decision-making (Sanders et al., 1999) gauged independent variables. The findings in the investigation showed that the parent survey agreed that parental involvement is needed and 75 percent of the parents reported no contact from the school about being involved such as volunteering, fund raising, and community participation (Sanders et al., 1999). The study showed that 80 percent of the parents need more information about helping their children at home (Sanders et al., 1999).

The sixth investigation focused on parental efficacy using a national sample of 929 families with children aged 10-17, examining the impact of parent’s feelings of efficacy on student achievement (Shumow & Lomax, 2009). Data in this investigation came from the survey of parents and children who telephone interviews took place according to the national sample. Efficacy in this study was defined by Shumow and Lomax as parents believing that they were successful in having a positive influence on teenagers academic, social, and emotional development; overcoming negative influences and having a positive impact on schools and community agencies (Shumow & Lomax, 2009). Findings supported the author’s theory and proved that family background, income, and neighborhood had an effect on efficacy, which in turn will affect the involvement of parents in education and upbringing (Shumow & Lomax, 2009).

The seventh investigation reviewed conducted a longitudinal evaluation of school change and performance in Title 1 schools. The investigation followed the progress of students in 71 high-poverty schools at the third grade level through the fifth grade level. The investigation study examined the visibility of standards and assessments, basic or advanced teaching techniques, teacher preparation, teachers’ skills, and professional development, focus on assessment, and accountability, district standards policies, and outreach to parents (Westat and Policy Studies Associates, 2001). Parents measured the extent to which teachers communicated with parents of low-achieving students through meeting face-to-face, sending materials home, and telephoning routinely when their child was having problems (Westat and Policy Studies Associates, 2001).  Findings suggested that achievements approved faster when teachers reported high levels of outreach to parents who showed low achievement (Westat and Policy Studies Associates, 2001).

The research supports my hypothesis that parental involvement increases a child’s academic success though more research needs done in areas such as defining what parental involvement means, teacher and school interaction with parents, and community partnerships. This research hypothesis design is to focus on the lower 25^th percentile of learners and parental involvement. Parental involvement of ten hours of study time with their children will increase a child’s academic success.

Method

Participants

This research is going to cover the Hermiston school district covering two junior high schools and one high school with a student range from 8^th grade to 12^th grade. Armand Larive Middle School has 190 eighth graders, Sandstone Middle School has 166 eighth graders, Hermiston High School has 366 children in 9^th grade, 343 children in 10^th grade, 342 children in 11^th grade, and 308 in the 12^th grade. This research is going to sample 50 students that fall in the lower 25^th percentile of academic achievement. Inclusion characteristics for this study will include gender, age, race, estimated grade point average, parent working hours, and parent marital status. Exclusion characteristics will include learning disabilities, income, and alternative school. The sample needs to be diverse in accordance to grade level due to the fact education gets more complicated as children advance to higher-grade levels. Hermiston is rich in cultural diversity so different ethnicity groups need to be incorporated into this research. This study is going to use stratified random sampling with each strata being the different grade levels so that each grade level can have a separation in the intensity of education curriculum. The research would be inaccurate if the study compared each grade level, as equal when educational requirements are different. Once the sample can be selected, I will use simple random sampling to randomize each grade level for the research. 

Instruments

This research is going to use a survey to get data from the entire population at Hermiston high school and the two middle schools to get a understanding of the students study habits, parental involvement, working hours, parental working hours, how many children are in the home. The survey was created using Google documents and the data is tracked on a spreadsheet. The survey consists of 17 questions that will be distributed during school hours in the computer lab. Once data is compiled from the survey of the students then a parental survey will be sent home in the format of a link so the parents can use the Internet to answer the questions. The information will be cross analyzed to see if the students and parents expect the same for academic achievements.

Design

This research design is using archival data to collect for the literature review and have two sets of surveys for the students and parents to gain a general idea where parental academic involvement stands. The final step is to use experimental design with random assignment where each grade level is split into two groups. The grouping will be set for each grade level such as Group A and B, group A will have a parent work with the student for 10 hours of week and group B will have their own study routine without parental involvement. The groups will be sent home with a study packet so the parents and students can understand what will be on the test. The hypothesis in the research states, Parents that spend 10 hours of educational involvement will increase the academic achievement of their children. The independent variable is the amount of hours a parent would spend with the child and the dependent variable is the increase of academic achievement. Prior to the experimental design, all students will take a generalized test that is appropriate for the grade level they are currently enrolled. The test will be shortened in length to minimize testing times and covers the basic general studies of math, science, and English. The length of the experiment will be one month in length and at the end of the month all students will retake the test.

Procedure

Archival data for the literature review was compiled from ERIC with each article having an identifier that starts with ED 123-456. Each article can be located by using the number cited. Surveys were Internet based so each computer in the library or computer lab had been set up so each student can take the survey. Parents were sent home a letter describing the research and a link to access the survey online at home. The data is monitored in real time and compiled into a spreadsheet with a summary of responses. The population had been compiled from the Hermiston school district using filters for the lower 25^th percentile of grade point averages. The sample was taking from each grade level starting with the 8^th grade and finishing with 12^th grade.

Ethical Issues

Primarily the ethical guidelines would to prevent harm from the people involved in the study and to create unbiased results. Ethics is to promote the aim of research such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. I would want to avoid fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data. I would honesty report data, results, methods, and procedures.  Strive to avoid a bias in the design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions and self-deceptions or personal interest for financial gain.

Results

            Parental involvement at home with schoolwork suggests that their children’s academic success will rise and have better grade point averages. Children in most cases had dual working parents with only a few with one stay at home parent. The survey asked children if parents were too busy to help with homework and the data collected was strongly agreed. The survey also asked if the children should study more and a third agreed. In this research, the children and parents had many of different variables to limit time on schoolwork. Parents working fulltime and at least part-time were a factor in weekly involvement of education with some children working at least part-time as well. The major impact of the survey suggested that over fifty percent of kids had parents with less than high school diplomas. 

Discussion

The results suggested that my hypothesis was correct meaning that parents that spend at least ten hours a week with their children’s schoolwork will increase academic success.  Amount of parents that both worked and their educational history affected the amount of hours that they were involved in their children’s education. This investigation wanted to test how the students answered questions on a survey and compared them to the parent’s survey. Questions asked in the survey created some contradicting results and self-reported biases. Children surveyed that parental involvement was lower than what the parents reported on the survey.

References

Baker, A. J., & Soden, L. M. (1997). Parent Involvement in Children’s Education: A Critical Assessment of the Knowledge Base [Information Analyses ED407-127]. Retrieved from Education Resources Information Center: www.eric.ed.gov

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2011). Education Pays [Fact Sheet]. Retrieved from United States Department Of Labor: http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm

Catsambis, S. (1998). Expnading the Knowledge of Parental Involvement in Secondary Education: Effects on High School Academic Success [Reports Report No. 27/ED426-174]. Retrieved from Education Resources Information Center: www.eric.ed.gov

Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M. G. (2000). Connecting home, school, and community: New directions for social research. In Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 285-306). Retrieved from Google ebookstore

Hernderson, A. T., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement [Annual Synthesis ED474-521]. Retrieved from Education Resources Information Center: http://eric.ed.gov/

Izzo, C. V., Weissberg, R. P., Kasprow, W. J., & Fendrich, M. (1999). A Longitudinal Assessment of Teacher Perceptions of Parent Involvement in Children’s Education and School Performance. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY, 27(6), 817-839. doi:10.1023/A: 1022262625984

Sanders, M. G., Epstein, J. L., & Connors-Tadros, L. (1999). Family Partnerships with High Schools: The Parents’ Perspective [Report Report No. 32]. Retrieved from Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk: http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report32.pdf

Shumow, L., & Lomax, R. (2009, November 18). Parental Efficacy: Predictor of Parenting Behavior and Adolescent Outcomes. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2(2), 127-150. doi:10.1207/S15327922PAR0202_03

Westat and Policy Studies Associates. (2001). The longitudinal evaluation of school change and performance in Title I schools. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/offices/OUS/PES/esed/lescp_highlights.html

Happiness

Your Top Strength *Humor and playfulness* You like to laugh and tease. Bringing smiles to other people is important to you. You try to see the light side of all situations. Your Second Strength *Forgiveness and mercy* You forgive those who have done you wrong. You always give people a second chance. Your guiding principle is mercy and not revenge. Your Third Strength *Gratitude* You are aware of the good things that happen to you, and you never take them for granted. Your friends and family members know that you are a grateful person because you always take the time to express your thanks. Your Fourth Strength *Capacity to love and be loved* You value close relations with others, in particular those in which sharing and caring are reciprocated. The people to whom you feel most close are the same people who feel most close to you. Your Fifth Strength *Leadership* You excel at the tasks of leadership: encouraging a group to get things done and preserving harmony within the group by making everyone feel included. You do a good job organizing activities and seeing that they happen.

Future of Psychology and Technology

Technology is always advancing so what are some recent advancements in psychology with technology?